Todays in History

Aviation history Part 9 (From the "happy few " for the transport of air mass)

The first major next-generation aircraft, and is characterized in the outer shape of the new swept wing, was the Boeing B47 bomber stratosphere. From this line of development was followed on the military side of Boeing B52 bomber, the most important aircraft of the fleet of U.S. strategic bombers, and civil party, the Boeing707, resulting in the line of what is to successful commercial aircraft, Boeing was followed: the 727, 737 and widebody, the 747. The new aircraft technology multiplies the productivity of commercial aircraft, which is given by the flight speed, passenger capacity and operational readiness. And reached almost twice the cruising speed and 707 double the capacity (up to 180 compared with 90 of the propeller aircraft). Cheap prices fell, and the prosperity and leisure time increased steadily in industrialized countries. Air transport, business and tourism travel experience, from the sixties, an unparalleled boom.

The aviation industry responded with widebody aircraft: Boeing with 747 (currently over 500Sitzplätze) with the Douglas DC10 (225 380Plätze) and Lockheed with L1011Tristar (256-400). The project of a major military transporter (now Lockheed C-5 Galaxy), but the real impetus was given to it.
Due to the enormous cost of armaments and the huge U.S. market national, acquired the United States in scientific and technical point of overwhelming economic superiority, both in the development of aircraft and the aviation market and forced the Europeans, not completely lost to a growing concentration of research and industry.

Was the late sixties, with the aim of building its own European large commercial aircraft, the Airbus Industrie. On December 18, 1970, the partnership agreement of the French and Germans SNIAS Airbus GmbH was signed. Later he joined the Spanish CASA, Fokker, Dutch and British Aerospace. The first aircraft, the Airbus A300 (first flight 1972) was the first widebody aircraft with two engines and the U.S. plane made by three-jet to compete successfully.

The need for obedience to offer a whole family followed the smaller Airbus A310 (1982), A320/21/19 (1987) and long range versions A330/340 (1991). As a revolutionary innovation, but also controversial was the A320 with one hand to use "side stick"as the main control member moving in the cabin of commercial aircraft, replacing the traditional control column was moving the rudder flap is not about ropes, but only into electrical signals (fly by wire). Between companies or between the U.S. and Europe, relax with a brutal competition where technology player, but less political and economic power, the decisive role played - and it's like the basic question of whether the State may directly or indirectly support development projects. Both airlines and manufacturing companies face the huge investments that can hardly be financed from its own economic activity and the solid state through the laws of liberalization and deregulation of influence and lead to unexpected risks.

Air traffic continues to increase, in 1990 there were about one billion passengers a year, probably around 2000, two million limit exceeded. In addition, the pure air freight is growing. Lufthansa, the first 1972 load all the air, a set of 747, the service, he moved to the mid-nineties to 20 percent of its revenue from air freight.
The overcrowding at airports and space in the vicinity of large cities is a growing problem. Chicago, for example, must manage more than 60 million passengers a year, and in Frankfurt, there are about 40 million. Larger aircraft with more than 500 to 600Sitzplätzen could at least reduce the number of takeoffs and landings are planned for Boeing and Airbus (Airbus, the industry remains under pressure to counteract the Boeing747 something to respond to a whole family can airlines offer).

New airports daunting, especially in the Far East are already under construction or planned in Hong Kong, Bangkok, Seoul, Guangzhou, Kuala Lumpur and Shanghai. Airline Association, IATA wait here with an annual growth in passenger numbers by ten percent. A key subsystem of the air transport is the regional transport. He uses lines shorter and medium length and with fewer passengers. A wide range of aircraft with a maximum of 100Sitzplätzen and is mainly used Propeller-/Turbinenantrieb here.

Aviation history Part 8 (The war - the global aviation propeller aircraft and)

During the war in which the giant transport tasks, especially the U.S., a worldwide network of aviation - airports with navigation systems, radio and air - it was learned that could now be used for civil air traffic. Four-engined transport aircraft, military transport developed as the DC6 Douglas and Lockheed Super Constellation, 1955 flew nonstop service routine traffic across the Atlantic aboard 90Passagieren. The flight time was from Dusseldorf to New York round 13Stunden, 500Kilometer cruising speed about an hour. The cabin pressure-proof long-range bombers, allows a smooth flight at high altitude over time.

1957 round of carriage of passengers on the route from the Atlantic to the waterway. The total number of passengers at that time was in the North Atlantic route more than two million dollars. 1955, issue of sovereignty, were back in Germany operated aircraft and air traffic was restored and Lufthansa.
On May 15, 1941 flew the first airplane in the UK - the Gloster E28/39 - with an engine of military pilots and engineer Frank Whittle, who had applied for a patent in 1930.

During World War 2, the jet engine was developed to fruition, however, was only a few fighters like the Messerschmitt Me 262 and Gloster Meteor, for military use. After the war won, the jet engine and the aerodynamics of high speed, driven by the arms race between East and West, quick and important force. On October 14, 1947 crossed the military pilot Charles (Chuck) Yaeger an experimental rocket plane - the BellX1 - for the first time the sound barrier. In the mid-fifties, reached the standard of fighter aircraft Lockheed F104 (Star Fighter), who later flew in the Air Force Federal, flight level two times the speed of sound (about 2000Kilometer per hour). Nearly 25 years later (around 1969) also flew a Soviet and European commercial aircraft - the Tupolev144 and the Franco-British Concorde Development Community - twice the speed of sound. Since 1976, the Concorde flies at a scheduled air service between Paris, London and New York.

Aviation history Part 7 (World War 2 - a new dimension of terror by the aircraft )

1933 in Germany, the Nazis seized power, and invested in the largest air defense style. 1939, the outbreak of war, ordered the German air force together for almost as fighter aircraft to all the Allied Powers. Combat aircraft like the Messerschmitt Me109, and bombers, like the Heinkel He111 and the Junkers Ju 88, documented the technical superiority of the Germans, but was quickly captured in the early years of the war by the British and Americans.

In war the aircraft was previously unknown dimension of terror. Bombers carried the war across the fronts in the interior. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were killed in the attack, and priceless objects were destroyed. A gigantic production machinery has been created, especially in the U.S., which mainly produces heavy bombers (such as the Boeing B17) aircraft and transport (for example, Douglas). In June 1944 came one day 16B17 Boeing factory in Seattle.

Propeller-/Kolbenmotorantrieb The plane arrived late in the war on flight speed and size of its technical limits. Examples of the final stage of development, the Focke Wulf Fw 190 fighter planes, the British Spitfire and the American Mustang, the limits are reached at 700Kilometer per hour. The jet engine and high speed aerodynamics, which also includes the effects of the sound barrier before and during the war had developed, should herald a new era in the history of aviation, the jet age.

Aviation history Part 6 (Rationalization of the aircraft - new technology for air traffic)

Hugo Junkers in 1919 brought the first true commercial airliner - the Junkers F13 - on the market. She was all metal, low wing monoplane and had an enclosed cabin. For passenger traffic, an engine was very uncertain, therefore, followed two and three-engine aircraft, such as Junkers G-24 in 1925, also in 1925 and 1926, the Ford tri-motor Fokker FVII/3m. The aircraft of this type formed until the thirties, the backbone of air transport. With a new shell design, which made the thin metal skin of a substantial part of the forces, the plane was much easier and more rational (ie less air resistance) can be constructed. Novel aircraft instruments, such as turn and bank indicator, directional gyro and artificial horizon, introduced in 1930, to fly (with restrictions) on the night and fog and clouds. The pilots, however, had great difficulty in forgetting one's own feelings and rely only on the instrument display.

In the thirties, the airlines also dared to cross the Atlantic. This route between the Old and New World offers the most lucrative economic use of the aircraft. Lufthansa flew mail Dornier flying boats to South America, the Pan Am, which was the largest international airline, flight 1939, he ventured across the Atlantic with the passengers, also in a (large) seaplanes. If the aircraft of the country easier and more economical or seaplane, the (ditch, but could) be more inefficient than the plane of the Atlantic more appropriate and safer era, remained a controversial issue.

In the U.S. the domestic market was the twin-engine Douglas DC3 own transportation and more economical operating in Europe continues to be a dream. The DC3 (Dakota) in 1936 and entered service with about 13000Stück the largest transport aircraft in the world. In Germany, since 1933, the three-engined Junkers Ju 52, due to their robustness and reliability of the standard aircraft for civil transport operations and military.

Aviation history Part 5 (After the war - air traffic worldwide)

Despite the economic depression after World War II sought to establish an everywhere, with appreciation converted and bombers, an air traffic. The post is offered as an ideal load. The cards are easy and quick delivery of a message is also invaluable. The first national air transport route informed the German aviation shipping February 5, 1919 from Berlin to Weimar, the seat of the National Assembly, was served the first international route March 22, 1919 by the French Lignes Farman Aériennes between Paris and Brussels. Airlines that sprang up like mushrooms and disappeared again, Germany has more than thirty times. 1926 arose from the fusion of early stage, Germany's Lufthansa, now the National Society and was also an instrument of foreign policy. In other countries the process was similar.

Daredevil pilots developed with adventure flights over oceans, mountains and deserts more new air routes from which later became the highways of the global air transport. But the attempt to cross the Atlantic in twenty 19Piloten life. The first nonstop flight in 1919 led the British Alcock and Brown's Vickers Vimy bomber, Charles Lindbergh flew nonstop solo flight 20./21.Mai 1927 in New York to Paris, and in April 1928, Koehl and Fitzmaurice flew of Hunefeld Junkers W33 engine in a single east-west across the Atlantic.

Aviation history Part 4 (World War 1 - the plane will become the new weapon)

In the First World War was one of the aircraft for special purposes - as a recognition, attack, fighter and bomber aircraft - developed and not get a role in winning the war. The performance of all subsystems - the fuselage (wood / metal), motors (series, circulation, radial engine, water cooled or air) and the propeller is increased dramatically.

Sustainable impact in the postwar period was the establishment of an aviation industry, air traffic infrastructure is required (airports, radio systems) and aviation community (the community). Worked before the war only a few thousand in aviation, was towards the end of the war in Germany and France on 190 000 3000 00Personen. About 200000Flugzeuge total production, mostly in France (60,000), followed by Britain (58,000) and Germany (48,000). Learned to build giant aircraft (Dornier, Rohrbach, Handley Page, short, Farman, Voisin, Caproni) and innovation as a particularly powerful use of duralumin in the construction of metal (Junkers, Dornier and Rohrbach). Typical aircraft by the end of the war fighters Fokker DVII (Germany) and the British Sopwith Camel or a bomber, the dual-engine Vickers Vimy British.

Aviation history Part 3 (Since the level of powered flight)

The American brothers Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville (1871-1948) Wright was able to make the first controlled powered flight. On December 17, 1903, raised their aircraft, controlled by Orville, after a brief start in a horizontal launch pad with its own engine from the ground and twelve seconds remained in the air. The fourth flight of the day, driven by Wilbur, lasted nearly a minute. The performance of Wright was characterized by a very systematic and experimental approach. The propeller and a lightweight gasoline engine also come from them. In 1908 Wright aircraft were higher than other structures so far.

In Europe, Paris-based Brazilian Alberto Santos Dumont was in the fall of 1906, the first public flight observed and recognized. The Wright Brothers and Santos Dumont flew jets of duck call. The height adjuster is here in front, while the wing and the unit (and possibly the rudder) are mounted behind. Although this is more advantageous for efficiency, but more difficult to fly in gusty wind. Forced in recent years lay behind the elevator and rudder, which provides a degree of inherent stability.

In 1909 he went to several events in the history of aviation: July 25, Frenchman Louis Bleriot crossed the English Channel in August showed the Reims air show for the first time the general public of the possibilities, the aircraft offered And in September was also the first German, Hans degree in a home-built airplane to have a successful flight and won the price 40000Mark Lanz air. Especially the military, made in the ease of use of aircraft as a weapon carefully invested, and increasingly in the development of aeronautics research. Research institutes were in Germany (1909 Aero Dynamic AVA Research Institute in Göttingen and in 1912 the German Experimental Institute for Aviation in Berlin-Adlershof), England (1912, Real aeronautical establishment at Farnborough) and France (Gustave Eiffel Aerodynamic Institute founded 1909 in Paris).

The AVA was led by Ludwig Prandtl's birthplace of aerodynamics. No area of technology, was due to the problem of the flight itself and the task (military), so it depends on scientific research and technology of flight. Political tensions increased in 1910 and - - Regarding the performance of potential adversary aircraft of new records of speed and altitude range is sought. High prices, as the Emperor's Prize for the best aircraft engine, encouraged the ambition of the engineers. Typical aircraft before the First World War was an example of the Austria-Germany Rumpler Etrich dove, a monoplane, which was regarded as the safest aircraft and the French Deperdussin with 200Kilometern per hour, the fastest aircraft of Russian and Sikorskij four-engine "Ilya Muromets" (1913), the larger (and slower) aircraft. Sikorskij Igor emigrated to the twenties in the U.S., where he built large seaplanes and later became one of the founders of the art helicopters (therefore called Mr.Helicopter) fame.

Aviation history Part 2 (The flight dynamics and the principle of "heavier than air")

The many attempts to imitate the flight of birds, had all failed, is too complex, so that the easy and effortless movement in search of birds in "six degrees of freedom" which is technically expressed physically Actually: The free flight allows three directions of motion in the horizontal and vertical planes and three rotational movements about the longitudinal, transverse and vertical. The domain of the six degrees of freedom makes so fascinating, but also, along with the production of lift and thrust in like flies, as problematic.

The English scientist Sir George Cayley drew about 1,809 in the right way. He separated the basics of flight - in three separate tasks, and did a basic outline of the aircraft, in the example - lift, propulsion and control surfaces are back control. However, numerous attempts in the 19th century were still without success (Stringfellow, Henson, Wenham and Maxim in England, Le Bris, du Temple, Penaud and vein in France; Mozhaiski in Russia).

Progress on the slider managed Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896). From 1891 until his fatal accident August 9, 1896, scored with the constant improvement of more than 2000Gleitflüge monoplane and biplane. Lilienthal had at the School of Commerce (now University) in Berlin to enjoy one of the most renowned scientists in engineering (Franz Reuleaux) with a sound engineering background, was the leakage problem according to a systematic and addressed scientific and experimental. Unlike in England (Pilcher), France (Ferber) and the U.S. (Wright) were observed in Germany, his little progress.

Aviation history Part 1 (From Myth to Reality)

Daedalus, a famous Greek architect built for himself and his son Icarus from feathers and wax wings to escape from the prison of King Minos. Icarus, once in the air, I wanted to go up to see the world from above, which came too near the sun, the wax melted and he crashed. (.. 43 BC 18) This legend, the Roman poet Ovid described in epic scale, characterized the main driving forces in the development of aviation technology: improving living conditions and the desire to overcome the operations ground and making dreams come true. Similar legends, myths and dreams are at all times and in all cultures. First concrete designs for flying machines, but according to the example of bird and bat from Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1500). GABorelli but had to know that the man compared with the bird of very little muscle mass, you have to fly some time in their own can (The Movement of living organisms, 1680).

The first trip also takes him to a "lighter than air, with planes, thus creating buoyancy. On November 21, 1783 in Paris rose the first manned hot air balloon with two men of the Montgolfier brothers in heaven and on 1 December, followed by hydrogen balloon JACCharles the physical. Balloons, usually painted well maintained, with dramatic increases in the 19 th century interest in the flight to monitor and promote its further development to the blimp (Giffard, 1852, Renard and Krebs 1884, Santos Dumont, 1901). The blimp was actually started with the first flight of a Zeppelin in the July 1, 1900 Lake Constance. Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin had created. The rigid structure consisted of aluminum alloy once exotic, which makes little cheaper in a new electrolytic process has become a thousand times, and therefore was not at all affordable. Alfred Wilm in 1909 invented the duralumin, an alloy of copper and magnesium high strength aluminum that would be important for aviation in general. With Zeppelin airship was taken around 1910, commercial air traffic and the first held in the thirties, including a regular air service across the Atlantic. In May 1937, broke the hydrogen-filled airship LZ129 "Hindenburg" on landing at Lakehurst, New York; 36Passagiere were killed, which meant the end of aviation. Only ship-impact air calls (dirigibles) remained alive as an advertising medium.

Jeanne D'Arc

On January 9, 1411 Joan of Arc was born. The exact date is not, however, survived. There are written to specify which year of birth 1410, in others of January 6, 1412

The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)
In 1328, after the death of children, French King Charles IV, there was no agreement on his successor. Edward III., King of England, reported on the claims to the throne of France. There were a number of new fighting between England and France. But after several years of the war seemed to seal the fate of France. British ruled parts of France and 10 July 1428 laid siege to the enemies of the French city of Orleans.

Jeanne D'Arc - El Salvador
In this seemingly hopeless situation Jeanne D'Arc entered the scene. In his view, God called to France to save them from British rule. Of course, was the daughter of hard to convince people about their projects the farmer with no education, 17 years old. Basically, it was almost afraid to ask her on the throne of France for a hearing. I wanted to help the king's dignity and without Orleans from the English. Surprisingly, Charles VII was talking to her and the girl gave her confidence. To date, no one knows how Joan has managed to convince the throne. In its plan to benefit a legend that says in French. It was believed that France would save a virgin.

What was his achievement?
In their desperate situation, the French soldiers were ready to believe in a miracle. The great faith of the young Joan gave them new hope. She was unaware of the military war. But bravely and courageously fought against the besiegers. In its first deployment achieved a victory that defeated the French troops had long desired. With it, the city was liberated by the British. Then, Carlos was crowned king. He came back to France.

But Joan was not always so lucky. He was captured by the British and the church were sentenced to death by fire. The Pope raised and it was Jeanne D'Arc Church has always been a thorn in the eye by the right messenger of God only. On May 30, 1431 was burned in the city of Rouen vivo. 1920 Joan of Arc of the church was declared a saint.

Jeanne was the novels, plays and songs that were included in the literature. Important images that represent a diversity of interpretations of their lives, by William Shakespeare (Henry VI.) Schiller (The Maid of Orleans) and George Bernard Shaw (Saint Joan) wrote.

Charlemagne

December 25 800 Pope Leo III crowns. the Frankish king Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor. Right now, Karl already exists in much of Europe. Since his empire developed, the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation that there are over 1,000 years.

Karl is the April 2 747 as the eldest son of the late King Pippin the Younger and his wife Bertrada birth. However, there are sources that indicate that the 742 or 748 as the year of birth. The birthplace is not recorded, also for children and young Charles no sources. Karl was great not only figuratively. He measures 1.92 meters by the time an impressive size.

754 Charles was anointed with his father and his younger brother Carloman of Pope Stephen II as king. 24.9.768 When King Pepin the age of 54 years died in Paris, the Empire was divided between the two brothers: Charles reigned in the north, Karl Mannheim, in the south.

Estranged brothers
The two princes are not tolerated, the differences were less political, but personal. Karl was in 769, against rebellious Aquitaine. When his brother was denied his loyalty, defeated the rebels alone and also claimed that part of the country that should have been granted to his brother. When 771 the situation had worsened so that even threatened a war between the warring brothers, Carloman died suddenly of a serious illness shortly. Thus, the autocrat Karl, a journey that culminated 29 years later, the first Western Empire after the fall of Western Roman Empire.

Empire in ruins
After the end of Rome had fallen to the west of the kingdom. Carlos when in Rome, 20 thousand people living in the ruins. Constantinople, which were regarded as the successors of Rome, had several hundred thousand inhabitants. Colony had 10,000 inhabitants, however, Baghdad will be in that time has been a city of millions (in comparison).

Charles reigned over an empire that stretched on the ground. For the interior restoration of the kingdom took Karl's Church, the church as necessary to protect their interests.

At the request of Pope Charlemagne conquered in the years 773 and 774 the Lombards. Soon, he ruled most of Italy except the Byzantine territories in the south. The longest lasted for the subjugation and Christianization of the Saxons (772-804). In Spain it was against the Arabs, but had to withdraw with heavy losses of his army. 778 through the organization of the hitherto largely independent of Bavaria in his empire.

The new world order
In 800 Charles was the only one with enough power to support the Papacy, and convinced Christian was willing a. By contrast, Karl himself relied heavily on the church and used the newly acquired territories to submit. He forgave the bishoprics, at its discretion and synods held as necessary. The secular and spiritual power was transferred at the beginning of the ninth century closer together: the two control centers in the Middle Ages, the Papacy and the Empire.

Pope asks for protection and assistance to the king of the Franks, not the Eastern Roman Emperor. In the year 797 had an effect on the breakdown of Charles Synods of the Eastern and Western Church. With his coronation was demand, not only over his people, but around the world to rule and asked the Byzantine law first. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Byzantium felt like a seamless continuation and successor of the Roman Empire. It took twelve years to Byzantium in the Treaty of Aix-Charles dignity recognized. In return, the Franks were in Venice and Dalmatia of Ostrom.

The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation

Charles died after the reign of 47 years to 28.1. 814 in Aachen. The same day it was built Aachener Pfalz buried. At his death, his empire stretched from the North Sea to the region of Abruzzo, from the Elbe to the Ebro, from Lake Balaton to Britain.

The life and work of Charles the Great, created after his death, many legends, including Carlos cycle with the Song of Roland. Over time, people called the Holy Roman kingdom, and later even sacred Roman Empire of the German nation.

Only in August 1806, initiated the second Confederation (Confederation of the Rhine "), the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.

The death of Genghis Khan 775 years ago

The name "Genghis Khan" in Mongolian language means "universal ruler" and was actually Temüdschin ("Smith") as the actual name of Genghis Khan was the ruler of a vast empire. Mongolia was inhabited in medieval times by various tribes and peoples who live as nomads, not sedentary. They moved with their animals from one field to another and slept in tents around felt, known as yurts.

Temüdschin 1155 was born the son of a tribal leader. At that time it was common for children to principles of horsemanship and archery practiced. Even children are married at a young age by their parents. The spouse had to come from another tribe.

Temüdschins was looking for a father to him a woman, as Temüdschin was nine. Temüdschin traveled with his father to his wife and lived with his parents. On the way home his father was poisoned by his enemies and died, had just come home. Temüdschin then had to quickly return to his tribe, but could not prevent the tribal federation broke and he and his family were dispossessed of their herds.

Seeking protection Toghril joined Temüdschin, a father and his fellow tribal leaders. In his order led many battles against hostile tribes Temüdschin. He also had to do it again, like his own family turned against him. With about 15 years ago was Temüdschin, Börte, the girl he had promised as a child per woman, now a reality. However, shortly after they had been stolen in a battle with 40,000 men and had to penetrate the enemy camp to rescue them.

In 20 years of age Temüdschin decided that he would unite the people of the Mongols and teacher. Part of the negotiations, some of robbery, gained the supremacy over many individual tribes. In the spring of 1206 reached its goal of Genghis Khan. In a meeting, was named Genghis Khan, the ruler of all Mongol tribes. His empire consisted of about 2 million people who came from 30 different tribes. His army was 100,000 strong men.

Genghis Khan, invaded China in 1211 and began to conquer Asia. Beijing, China capital, besieged twice, she finally conquered and plundered and looted much of the city. 1219, Mongol troops invaded by Persia. Later he went to Russia and Poland. Here even the army defeated the German and Polish duke Henry II

Temüdschins army was very successful. This was several factors: the army was dominated by strict rules that were already small violations death penalty. Therefore, the discipline of its soldiers was exceptionally high. Another reason was the strategic planning of each campaign, Genghis Khan was known for his tricks.

Finally, the Mongols had made an invention that came to them in a good position in the struggle: the stirrup. This allowed them to guide their horses with their legs and hands were free to use weapons. At the age of 64 years pulled out of Genghis Khan in his last campaign. On the way to fight an accident: Temüdschin fell from his horse and seriously injured. While his army fought a successful battle, who died in 1227 of his wounds.

At his death his kingdom was one of the largest ever existed under the rule of one man. Stretched from Korea to Poland, from China to Persia and consists of some modern-day Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Mongolia, Korea and Russia.

Hannibal - with elephants over the Alps

The year 246 BC, the year in which the top military commander Hannibal born. Hannibal someday be a great fighter and leader, but at the same time also a loser. Born in one of the greatest cities of antiquity, Carthage, and just a suburb of Tunis, the capital of the North African country of Tunisia. The population then of 500,000. But now back to Hannibal, who fought hard and lost a lot.

Who was Hannibal?
246 BC Hannibal was born in Carthage, the son of General Hamilcar Barca and will Bithynia 183 BC in his life. But until that will happen a lot. At the time of Hannibal, his country of birth and therefore, also implicated his father Hamilcar directly to a confrontation with the Roman Empire: Punic War. Therefore, we want to preface some remarks on the Punic Wars:

Romans and Carthaginians - the Punic Wars
Punic War lasted 118 years, 264-146 BC, but that prevails at this time is not always the war. In the year 246 BC we are right at the first Punic War. The participants in these wars, the Romans and the Carthaginians. Punic Wars, which were named by the Carthaginians (Punic =) that is divided into three separate wars.

The battle begins - the first Punic War (264 BC - 241 BC)
Map: Carthage's sphere of influence before the first Punic War, which stained blue. The two Mediterranean islands of Corsica and Sardinia to Rome Hannibal lost father. Here it says that the first war in which we live. The Roman Empire stretches more than Italy and will continue to grow. The Romans thought they could take in the Mediterranean, visiting the islands. But the Carthaginians, who controlled trade throughout the Mediterranean and indirect rule over parts of the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily to defend their best. However, Carthage lost, despite great efforts, the war.

The reigning Lutatius Roman consul Gaius Catullus and the commander of Hamilcar Barca agree to a contract: The Carthaginians must submit Sicily to the Roman Empire, all Roman prisoners of war and pay 2,200 talents, an ancient coin as compensation. A blow to the people and government of Carthage. Amilcar is so disappointed by his defeat that leaves their children swear revenge. Hannibal and his brothers will succeed where his father was denied: a victory over Rome. It is 23 years later the war.

The route of the Alps - the 2 nd Punic War (218 BC - 201 BC)
After Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal's father died, Hannibal took over the age of 28 the rule. Hannibal seeks an ally and, finally, I found this in Spain. From the Roman Empire has power over the Mediterranean and wants to take over the sea may also North Africa and Spain, must meet Hannibal counter measures to prevent this.

Therefore, developed a brilliant plan and travels with 50,000 infantry, cavalry and 39 elephants in 9000 by sea to Spain. From here, take any further travel arrangements. As the first man takes out an army of the Alps in northern Italy.

From there made his way south. Several battles he chooses for himself. But Hannibal's happiness does not last long. Hannibal to supply new troops already stationed in Spain said his brother Hasdrubal also go to the Alps of Italy, but in the middle of the Alps, he dies. As a result, the Roman soldiers are mostly so easy to defeat the Carthaginian army can. In the subsequent peace agreement is the worst measure of Hannibal, who can not do without the consent of the war in Rome.

What happened next to Hannibal
Hannibal lost time, but not give up. Because of its compliance with the peace agreement that can be a businessman, but their rich Carthaginians slander against the Roman rulers. Hannibal has to flee. Its flight is from Carthage to Tyre (Lebanon) to Armenia and from there via Crete to Bithynia (Asia Minor).

There is Prusias last king to use it as a fleet commander, however, lose Prusias troops' on the ground against the Romans. Hannibal has no chance to escape more before the Roman captivity, and has 183 before Christ and not by suicide poison.

Emperor Tiberius - a true successor of Augustus?

Tiberius was the 16th of November in the year 42 BC (abbreviation: BC), born Tiberius Claudius Nero in Rome. His father was a supporter of murderers and a staunch Republican and pursued both. Therefore, the whole family had to flee shortly after the birth of Tiberius to Greece and Sicily.

The emperor as a stepparent

After the return of the entire family in the year 38 BC Emperor Augustus, Tiberius forced his parents divorce, because he Livia Tiberius' mother wanted to marry. It was Tiberius, stepson of Augustus, emperor.

Three months after the wedding Livia then have a second child and a brother of Tiberius. His name was Drusus. The patient was treated by the emperor as the son always preferred, and better, even though Augustus Drusus's biological father was.

Tiberius was in line with traditional Roman education. Be acquired through knowledge and its status as an adopted son of the emperor, that may already be active in politics of principles. He was already a senator of 19 years on the air, which normally would be only after the age of 25 years.

The commander of success
In addition, Tiberius began collecting military experience and committed to principles of several campaigns. His first military command, which was 25 BC, at the age of 17 years as an officer in the War of Cantabria. Has over time become a very effective military leaders and successful.

He conquered during the reign of his stepfather, for example, the Alpine region. After the death of his brother, then took command of the Germanic campaigns. As captain led many successful campaigns of others. Tiberius had been since the year 25 BC to 12 AD and again as a general in use and had much more success than other generals of his time.

Emperor Tiberius to succeed?
At the urging of his stepfather Tiberius Caesar Augustus himself had only four years after the wedding of his beloved wife Agrippina Vipsania divorce and marry his sister, Julia, what he was doing and forced only reluctantly.

In 6 BC Tiberius was in his office, he retired to Rhodes and lived there until 2 AD in voluntary exile. The reason for this was that his new wife bore Tiberius could not last long and the other, the fact that the emperor of the other amazing potential successors is not heavily promoted.

During his time in exile, his second wife was arrested for adultery and the marriage was dissolved again. Tiberius then returned in the year 2 AD, but returned to Rome, but since he had previously given to his office, has no political power to commit.

had died only when all the possible heir to the throne that his stepfather adopted Emperor Augustus in the year 4 AD, Tiberius was his last chance to have a legitimate heir. Ten years later died the Emperor Augustus and Tiberius took over the age of 55 years in power. He reigned from 14 to 37 AD, the Empire. This reign of 23 years is considered one of the longest reigning only a Roman emperor.

While the Emperor Tiberius ruled, lived and worked the same Jesus Christ. Therefore, Tiberius is mentioned in the Gospel of Luke (Lk 3, 1-2).

During his time as Emperor Tiberius wanted to continue with the conservative policies of his late stepfather, because he had before his reign has great military conquests. Conservative in this case means more reserved and conservation. This means that he would not seek higher risk curves again, but wanted to consolidate the borders of the Roman Empire.

His conservative attitude was, for example, in the year 16 AD, were by the resignation of all the conquests, the right of the Rhine in Germany. This limit of the Roman Empire was saved and remained in the Roman Empire.

The end of the reign of Tiberius
Since Tiberius's son from his first marriage died earlier, he adopted his nephew Germanicus, who do not live much longer. Tiberius was the legitimate successor of Gaius Caligula ("the " famous and infamous Emperor Caligula below), the son of Germanicus. Tiberius, Caligula would also take control of his empire after his death.

In the year 26 AD, Emperor Tiberius moved to the island of Capri. He left his confidant Sejanus largely government activity in Rome. Sejanus saw this opportunity after the death of Tiberius himself to be emperor. When public Sejanus, but I wanted to be emperor, he and his followers were executed by order of Tiberius.

Regular public performances were during the reign of Tiberius, but nothing new, since Tiberius had always been afraid of intrigues and many citizens, suspected death, come on. That's why the Romans lived in constant fear and Tiberius is evident not only among citizens but also the unpopular Roman Senate.

It was then that the citizens of Rome, Tiberius's body after his death on March 16 from 37 AD would be launched only in the Tiber (river through Rome), as was usual for the body of a criminal. But that did not happen. The body was cremated and the Emperor in the same grave as the late Emperor Augustus brought.

Caligula - a cruel tyrant in ancient Rome

The Roman emperor Caligula Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was as Born 31 August 12 AD. He was a grandson of Emperor Augustus and Tiberius, and after the third emperor of ancient Rome. Like its two predecessors, he was part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Reigned 37-41 AD.

Caligula was actually his nickname, which at the time of his government was not in use. The soldiers had lost the name. Means "little boots", ie the shoes of the soldiers were targeted. Caligula was known for his cruel to you can torture and kill potential competitors and senators. Caligula portrait actually emperor Caligula would have to be. As the most likely successor of Tiberius, Caligula was knowing father Germanicus. However, the prefect of the Imperial Praetorian Guard, Sejanus attempted, by all means, even to become emperor and changed in a systematic way all possible successor to Tiberius.

Caligula: the rest

Although Caligula was seven, his father died on a trip to the East. Sejanus was probably murdered by other competitors. Later it was Sejanus Caligula both mother Agrippina and his two older brothers to jail or into exile, where three died.

Caligula was left behind and was cared for by his grandmother Livia, the widow of Emperor Augustus. She took the matter is that was sealed by the public and against attacks on his person was safe. Along with his three sisters grew therefore quite isolated.

When Emperor Tiberius, 16 died March 37, it was clear that Caligula would be his successor. This was, in fact, for six years in the environment of the Emperor, and probably felt good to him. If Caligula drowned even the sick Emperor Tiberius, as stated sometimes it is not clear.

History: Fact or Fiction?

In general, the history of this period full of anecdotes, it is not known if they are true or if you must describe Caligula only decoration. Ancient historians such as Suetonius, Dio Cassius and Josephus decorated their works as their own inventions.

Moreover, it was customary to use generalities to describe certain celebrities. Well characterized, for example, a well-known as a cruel ruler of a particular race, which is found in the descriptions of many other tyrants. What the person really was true and that the details just mentioned because they are generally used to describe a person will remain so in the dark.

Main objective: the opponents of

On 18 March 37 was proclaimed emperor Caligula. At the beginning of his term, became popular among tax cuts and financial donations to his bodyguards. After six months of Caligula fell seriously ill, possibly meningitis. Ancient historians see the disease as a turning point.

Since then, the emperor became more and more like a cruel man of power, which turns off all competitors, the senators treated as slaves and systematically killing lies, having previously held for high treason against them.

Big plans - but no substance

Military conquests are not attributable to Caligula. Although the Roman Empire sought in Germany and Britain to expand, but without being there, much further than its predecessor. To pretend that it intended to hire gladiators success Gauls and dye their hair red in order to present them as Germanic captives in Rome. Dams also allegedly used as projectiles that his soldiers had met in the North Sea.Caligula statue zeus true booty did not bring with her handful of combat moves, instead instructed his government to steal, especially in the Greek provinces of art objects. I wanted to bring even the Statue of Zeus Phidias (see photo), one of the ancient wonders of the world to Rome.

Most of his grandiose plans are not realized Caligula. There was, for example, also plans to build a canal through the Strait of Corinth, or a road in the Alps. In keeping with the image of the autocratic tyrant, however, extending the imperial prisons reading, which burned down their opponents and built themselves luxury apartments and playgrounds.

Final Caligula

Which the emperor, who rushed to worship as a god, criticized, even for a derogatory comment about her clothes, had been afraid for his life. No wonder that Caligula was the victim of a murder itself over time. On January 24, 1941, after less than four years in power that brought the members of the Guard (Praetorian) around.

Not only senators who had previously suffered too much under Caligula, but the people are glad the tyrant was dead. To destroy the memory of it, were statues representing him, coins with his image and his government destroyed documents. His successor, Claudio also said that all government measures that Caligula had begun to be valid.

Often Caligula was later declared insane. He was taken by the illusion of Caesar, he said. If the tyrant really had a mental illness or if their terrible acts did not rise from a fad, and the fear of their opponents and can not be resolved.

History: Fact or Fiction?

Main objective: the opponents of

Big plans - but no substance

Final Caligula

The Emperor Hadrian

Before 1930 years ago, on January 24, 1976, was born in the late Roman emperor Hadrian. He ruled the Roman Empire from 117 until his death, 138 to improve the integration of the kingdom to the outside and renewed the legislation and administration in the interior. He had no more than a war, but this was particularly cruel.

Adriano - the rightful heir to the throne?

He spent his childhood in Spain and came to Rome as a teenager. He was very interested in art and Greek culture and philosophy of language that most influenced him. When Adriana was ten, his father died. Emperor Trajan, Hadrian was a tutor.

In the race for military and political power of Adriano.

In 117, Emperor Hadrian, his predecessor, Emperor Trajan yet approved in the deathbed. This process is controversial. Trajan was probably already dead and his wife Plotina signed the bill making on their behalf. It had been kept secret for this reason, the death of her husband a couple of days.

During Trajan the Roman Empire had spread through many wars to its maximum size, the emperor Hadrian is said to protect the borders of the empire and to stabilize the unit. His reign was characterized largely by peace and prosperity.

In the 21 years of his mandate, Adriano was 13 years, while outside Italy. He often visited his troops scattered throughout the empire for his fighting spirit, even in times of peace to keep. It fortified the border wall in Germania Limes and had a similar embankment on the northern border of the Roman Empire in Britain to create, Hadrian's Wall.

Hadrian's Wall

Near the border between England and Scotland, Hadrian's Wall stretched over 120 miles of Bay Solway Firth, on the west coast to the mouth of the River Tyne in the east. The wall was four to five meters high and was punctuated by 80 gates, were allowed to travel through the dealer, provided they paid taxes. Monitoring the location of the boundary by numerous towers. In 14 Army camps along the wall survived the soldiers to protect the border against intruders. You can still visit the main parts of Hadrian's Wall. Since 1987, the Wall is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Adriano as a client

Adriano is active not only in the Roman provinces, but in Italy as a client. Famous is the huge garden of his villa at Tivoli, where reconstruction of landscapes from various parts of the Roman Empire, which had met on his travels. As a monument to Hadrian had erected a mausoleum in Rome, which today bears the name of Castel Sant'Angelo.

Adriano and the Jews

Although a peace-loving Emperor Hadrian was actually led a very cruel war against the Jews. It all started at first seems positive. Adriano promised to build the great temple in Jerusalem was destroyed from the year 70, again. In reality, this project would have pleased the Jews. But it soon turned out not to be built the new sanctuary of his God, but in honor of Jupiter.

In addition, Hadrian banned circumcision of Jewish children and denied Jews the religious act, which is the main characteristic of belonging to Judaism.

That did not take the Jews and raised in the year 132 under the leadership of Bar Kochba against Roman occupation. Many people died on both sides. Initially defeated Bar Kochba and the Romans conquered Jerusalem. 135 However, the Romans fought and died in the battle for at least half a million Jews.

The Romans did eventually recover all of Judea. It barred the Jews from the city of Jerusalem, prohibited the Torah (Jewish holy book), and the name of the country in "Syria Palestina " erase the memory of the Jewish state. From then until 1948, Jews had no land of their own now.

Adriano - the rightful heir to the throne?

In the race for military and political power of Adriano.

Hadrian's Wall

Adriano as a client

Adriano and the Jews

European Union

Austria and the EU members and institutions of the member countries are Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Austria, Sweden, Spain and Portugal. The tasks and competences of the EU are perceived by common institutions. The supreme body of the Council of Ministers (Council of Europe. Union), composed of representatives (ministers) of the governments of Mgl.states. As an executive, headed by a sitting president, the European Commission, the MPC (since 1995), 20.

there, who are appointed by the governments of Mgl.states by mutual agreement for four years, Germany, France, Britain, Spain and Italy will each appoint two Mgl., the other member states. These include EU Commissioners responsible for a specific area of ??responsibility

Transport, environment, finance, agriculture). The European Parliament is directly elected and has responsibility for legislation, oversight and budget approval. The European Court and the judicial branches of the EU is responsible for safeguarding and respecting the law, the interpretation and application of Community law. Moreover, the Court of Auditors, the European Council and consist number. advisory committees. Origin and Objectives of the Foreign Min.

Mgl.states the Single European Act, signed in 1986 sets out the objectives on the basis of a resolution that points to the customs union, common market, the creation of a more developed European and European Political Cooperation achieving monetary system Union's policy. Late 1991, agreed by the Heads of State and Government of the Mgl.states a phased plan for implementation of the Europe. Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 7

2. Then in 1992 the Maastricht Treaty (Treaty of Europ. Union) was signed. 3 steps, inter alia, Europe.
monetary system expanded and foreign, security, legal policy, social and economic set to another. After knowing the policies of certain financial and economic. Convergence criteria for Mgl.staaten predates 1.1. 1997 Europ.

Central Bank was established at the end of the plan step is the introduction of a common Europe. Currency prior to 1.1. Additional 1999th. Dimension, the benefits of the EU through cooperation with the EFTA (European Economic Area Introduction 1

1. 1993) and the relationship remains open to Eastern Europe. States. History of European integration in the course of the Europ. Unification movement since the end of World War 2, 1952, Europe.

Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) from Belgium, West Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands was founded. 1957 with the Treaty of Rome, Europ. European Economic Community (EEC) and the Europ. Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) established, the EEC will be the creation of a common agricultural market, while the EURATOM Friedl.

should encourage the use of nuclear energy. In 1967, the institutions of the three communities merged, so that were created for the three (de jure if any) Communities of joint institutions. With recovery, elimination of internal tariffs and establishment of a common external tariff, the basis of a customs union was 1.1. 1973 1970th place, the initial.

Six of the Community to include Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland extended in 1981, Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in 1986, Austria, Finland and Sweden in 1995 Mgl.states. Austria and European integration, the relationship of Austria to the EU was given by the PSM is critical. However, the question of the EU is not only an economic and political connections has decreased significantly. After World War II, Austria was incorporated in the Marshall Plan. For a Western world was given political orientation.

Membership of the Council of Europe € (1956) enabled a rapid entry of medium learning time neutral government to European cooperation. The neutrality precludes the possibility of joining the EEC was founded in 1957, as this long-sought political similarities. Thus, Austria, along with seven other countries signed the Treaties establishing the EFTA (1960). However, Austria tried before coming to the EU. These efforts are at a peak in the conclusion of a Free Trade Agreement in 1972, which foresees a reduction of customs duties and other import restrictions. Negotiations between Austria and the EU on trade facilitation were already taken in the sixties, but not, at least not by a veto of Italy (1962) due to the tense situation in South Tyrol.

se (. Austria should be subjected to pressure) to ensure that certain parallels with 1991 - from the road for many years, said a report: "Austria is becoming vulnerable to blackmail at the time of negotiations of any EU country "is finished as the Free Trade Agreement. , Austria became clear the EU power to feel. In the last minute pass to the communities, 20% of industrial products from tariff elimination to exclude. Of course, just as Austria's most successful industrial export products (alloys, stainless steel) were affected - Influential EU companies had implemented their interests and keep out unwanted competition. Through its Foreign Trade Austria and greater participation in the EU than many countries in the EU

However, the question of membership was due to neutral again a taboo and a half decades. Only in 1987 - a year after the publication of White Paper on completing the EU internal market "- the Association of Austria Industriel1er known as the first full EU accession. After years of debate on all EU members, the Austrian government a concrete step: Foreign Minister, Alois Mock, submitted on July 17, 1989 in Brussels the French Council President Roland Dumas, the request of Austria accession to the EU. In the short text in the hands of the membership application (reference to Article 237 of the Treaty) is a condition for membership is asked to: Austria wants to continue with the status of permanent neutrality.

Austria presented simultaneously in the "Memorandum of Brussels, " the government lntegration politik. Among other things he says to stay in an EU membership is a loyal and active member of EFTA and to find solutions as quickly as possible sectarian Orelle between the Community and the EFTA States. On July 20, 1989 instructed the Permanent Representatives of the twelve EU Member States to prepare a written opinion. This Avis (report) Published July 31 1991 in Brussels and was "largely positive", but has the issue of neutrality, the Alps and transit points of restrictions on the importation of Austria in agriculture.

Most of the EC commissioners Austrian 1991/1992 was a candidate favorably. The accession negotiations from the date of the application goes to the signing of the accession of five years. During this period, European integration has been very well together with the fall of the Soviet bloc, the dominant issue in politics and business. The negotiations were conducted and completed in record time. On the Austrian side, ministers, ambassadors and experts were negotiating with the EU authorities. A real marathon of negotiations ended on 1.

March 1994. France stopped opposing the Treaty of Transit (fear of a greater volume of traffic in their own country.) After 70 hours of intense talks could end at the end of the negotiations said. The Austrian government team negotiating five members (four ministers and a secretary of state), three provincial governors and 60 other employees in various sectors. Former positive expectations were disappointed several times, hard positions of the EU negotiators were even the breakdown of talks to fear. EU winners and losers, a quarter of domestic companies - particularly those in areas of monopolies, market regulations, subsidies, etc.

"protected"are - the accession to the EU must make fundamental adjustments to remain competitive. Nationalized industry still has a significant share of exports, they were reading has more of the basic industries and turn the "smart " products. The degree of internationalization is significantly increased because foreign companies are still relatively poorly represented Austria. After EU accession, foreign capital, foreign increasingly incorporated in Austria, with the establishment of additional subsidiaries of foreign companies is expected. Major public procurement must be advertised and no longer happen automatically for domestic firms. Experts from Austria, are growing opportunities in the EU countries.

There was a certain magnetic effect, of course, earlier in border areas of the EC. In general, remains to be seen what the mobility-tion will be held the Austrians. The EU hopes that the industry is mainly aimed at the elimination of differences in technical regulations and standardization of the rules> on the mutual recognition of test certificates and full participation in European research programs. The outlook for the EU is the desire for peace and cooperation between sovereign states of Europe. But the long-term one - built by the federal government - European State, as the original proponents of economic cooperation in Europe, the objective has been largely discarded. Probably the number of member countries increase at the end of the decade.

Turkey (Türkiye) had applied for membership in 1987, Cyprus (Cyprus) and Malta in 1990 and Switzerland and Norway (Norge) 1992. It is also expected that several Eastern European countries wish to join. Switzerland has subsequently withdrawn its request not to agree with their status of neutrality in conflicts. Other potential candidates for EU membership to include Iceland and Liechtenstein. Switzerland and Norway, who are also members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). 1991, the EC and the EFTA agreement on the establishment of a European Economic Area, which should include a single market for goods, services and capital.

Within this space, the EU and EFTA would be reciprocal in every major trading partners. The European Economic Area, 1 entered into force in January 1994, abolished trade barriers among trading partners, the EU and EFTA. The EU summit in June 1997 approved the "Treaty of Amsterdam, which amended the Treaty of Maastricht. Under pressure from the German delegation to the Amsterdam Treaty provides for a majority decision on asylum. Following the contract, the employment policy is not just a matter of national policy, but now an EU competence.

Lorenzo de 'Medici, Florence and a master in the art.

550 years ago was Lorenzo de Medici, ruler born in the Italian city of Florence, famous artists like Michelangelo and Botticelli promoted and funded, so ushered in the era of the Renaissance.

While the state in most of Europe still medieval thought and action, medieval art and science the tone in Italy produces a new dawn of time man and knowledge, to change life in Europe: the Renaissance.

But this way of thinking and new ways to spread the art, they need fans and sponsors, especially those with a lot of money and power. One of the most important of which Lorenzo de 'Medici, the fortunes of the city of Florence in the second half of the 15th century determined.

Small but powerful - the city-state in northern Italy
During his stay in Italy is composed of many small states. Especially in northern Italy, there are numerous city-states like Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Milan to Florence. The navigation and trade, have become rich and powerful. In contrast to most European countries are not ruled by kings and emperors, but they are republics. In fact, however, not the people the final say, but a few powerful families whose names are combined in part over several centuries with the history of cities.

Medici holds the reins
Florence at 15 and 16 century by the Medici family controlled. The influence of the merchant family goes far beyond the city limits. Two of his descendants and the popes from the early 16th century, the rule for generations Medici, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.

Through intermarriage, which are also connected to many major European dynasties. Therefore, Catherine de Medici (1519-1589) and Maria de Medici (1573-1642) Queen of France and Claudia de Medici (1604-1648) Archduchess of Austria. But all that takes place only after the death of Lorenzo. What role Lorenzo de 'Medici, also called "The Magnificent" is called?

Lorenzo and politics
On 1 January 1449 I was born in Lorenzo de Medici. "His father Piero ruled as a prince of the medieval Italian city-state of Florence. When he dies 1469 Lorenzo takes only the age of 20 his father's business. Although the role Lorenzo has no power in the republic, who really has everything under control. Only those who supported him, the possibility of an office in the city. All leaders are more or less dependent on him.

How does it do? He is very rich, but his family owns the bank Banca dei Medici. As an employer, which is supporting strong financial support to politicians who act in its spirit. It is also dedicated time and again averted the disaster business tactics in the city that is about to become part of the Papal States. Even an attempt to murder, the victim is his brother escape, Lorenzo and becomes even more powerful.

Lorenzo and the Arts
Also important meets Lorenzo Officials also a circle of artists, philosophers, architects and writers around, which he financed. These include the painter Sandro Botticelli, whose famous work, The Birth of Venus, symbol of the Renaissance.

Instead of the usual in the Middle Ages, the Christian saint, which represents the ancient goddesses who represent the full confidence to show their beauty. Drawing on the ancient art, impressed by a brand new image of man: God no more, but the focus is on people. The individual is important.

Equally important, this change of view of the statue of David by Michelangelo Buonarroti. Michelangelo's most famous artists of the Renaissance is part of the circle of the Medici. Lorenzo pattern is not limited in the kind of money, who also writes poems himself and not, as usual far learned Latin, but in their own language, Italian. He received the honorary title of "il Magnifico," the Magnificent.

Equally important, this change of view of the statue of David by Michelangelo Buonarroti. Michelangelo's most famous artists of the Renaissance is part of the circle of the Medici. Lorenzo pattern is not limited in the kind of money, who also writes poems himself and not, as usual far learned Latin, but in their own language, Italian. He received the honorary title of "il Magnifico," the Magnificent.

After him, the deluge
Lorenzo is certainly a very successful politician, but fails to establish a successor who is his equal. His son Piero Although it uses its stores, just interested in running the country and squandered the trust of the people. Lorenzo died in 1492, and the stormy times to break in Florence.

Just two years later, the monk Girolamo Savonarola, the leadership of the tears of the city itself. It sells the Medici family, criticized the fact that people turned away from God and can burn anything that looks like a luxury - whether art or jewelry, books, furniture, o. But Savonarola can have only four years. 1498 was executed. Medici again and grandson of Lorenzo, Lorenzo II back in business. The changing history of the Medici is ongoing and more to Mary de Medici died in 1737, whose last descendant.

Sissi and Franz: dream wedding for the 19 Century

At their wedding on April 24, 1854 that were seen as a dream couple: Elisabeth, Empress of Austria - Sissi - and Emperor Franz Joseph. But the marriage was fraught with many problems and life events.

Mainly by the success of Sissi movies to know more about Elizabeth than her husband. Just a reigning monarch in Europe has attracted much attention as the Empress of Austria and queen of Hungary. Sissi is in its people by their appearance and character, very popular and successful films of the fifties who enjoys cult status real Austrian border.

A happy childhood
Sissi is the second oldest daughter of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria and Duchess Ludovica. As a child, she spends the summer months, along with his seven brothers Possenhofen near Lake Starnberg. There, children in the open, rural romp, play and travel. Elizabeth was always a wild child, sensitive and loving of freedom.

In the summer of 1853 taught the 15-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph I meet her future husband, in Bad Ischl. You must then Helene Princess Sissi, the Bavarian sister are presented, but everything is different.

The young Empress
By chance he meets Isabel falls in love with her and the next day to celebrate the commitment of two. On April 24, 1854 the couple married the most beautiful and richest in the world - as the press - in the Augustinian Church in Vienna. The wedding is the dream wedding of the 19 century. In Vienna, a celebration of the week. But the mother of Emperor Franz is from the outset against the compound. Sissi is too young and uneducated. People, however, admires and loves beauty and naturalness Sissy.

Sissi in the Vienna Hofburg
The wedding begins for the young empress a very difficult time. Sissi, accustomed to freedom, is forced on the label of the Viennese court. At that time morality in society and especially in the imperial court in Vienna were very strict and forced.

1858 meets its primary obligation of the Empress Elisabeth: she brings two daughters of the crown prince as expected for the world. Sophie, Gisela and Rudolf can not stay with his mother. Archduchess Sophie believes it must provide appropriate education and accepts the supervision of children. Relationship between Sissi and the law is too bad to worse.

Franz can not help. The emperor should be the care of many political problems in the country. Civil unrest have shaken Europe tremble, and the rulers. The young emperor of 38 million people to rule and prevent the disintegration of the monarchy, and his wife both own.

Sissi runs a cult of beauty
Empress Elisabeth is a melancholy and nostalgia. This is increasingly the same Sissi aware of its beauty and operates a cult of beauty around them. With a size of 1.72 m, weighs only 50 kg. To maintain this look, they undergo a strict diet and excessive driving sport. In the Vienna Hofburg Sissi can create your own "gym. " They stoned every day, is also taking long walks and walking. She is especially proud of her hair. You who walk to the heel to take several hours per day for care.

The Empress is removed
Self-presentation and the cult of beauty take their toll. Sissi to squeeze a constant concern for themselves is the extent to which cancels important ceremonial duties of the court, without notice, only because they are dissatisfied with their appearance. As it grows, hiding from the photographers behind the shelves and displays. Finally, you can take pictures all over. The diets of many weaken their bodies and Sissi seriously ill.

Fateful year
But Sissi suffer further setbacks. In 1857 their first daughter Sophie died just two years. For months, Elizabeth withdrew to their rooms and pray and seek solace in church. Events for parties, diplomatic receptions and even talk to Francis Joseph refuses. Ten years later, his brother, Emperor Maximilian of Mexico, shot and killed by insurgents. His wife Charlotte is crazy.

With the death of King Ludwig II of Bavaria, is lost even a close friend. Setbacks Sissi increased loneliness. Then, when even the suicide of his son Rudolf committed, can not recover from this blow. Elizabeth was removed and only black clothes. She travels all alone and restless throughout the world to escape their personal problems. Separated from her husband all the time.

Death in Geneva
His latest journey takes them to Geneva. There, the Empress is killed September 10, 1898. The monarchy's opponents Lucheni Luigi stand with a polished nail for the heart. At first the damage did not realize Sissi and raise even a waiting ship. There, she collapses. His last words were: "What really happened to me?" Then she fainted and died on September 10, 1898. Kaiser Franz Joseph survived his wife of nearly 20 years. Regency dies after a 68-year-old of 1916 in Vienna.

Amerigo Vespucci

He learned that Columbus had not found a ship back to India, but a new continent.

White spots on the map
A trip for people with big time efforts Vespucci, a nehmen.Schiff25.jpg week to go in the boat, always with the uncertainty that is where you arrive. Sometimes travel is also hunger, or death. You can not just put on a plane and see the world.
Therefore, some countries earlier this earth had not explored. There were some white spots on maps or even countries that were not located. These were the areas that had not explored the Europeans.

The Discovery of America
Columbus was the first to discover America today. He held, but for the east coast of Asia. Only it was not clear, that between Europe and Asia remains a continent. He called the people he met Indians because he thought he was in India.

Between 1497 and 1504 should be 4 times Vespucci went to America. There are, however, different sources, and one can only say two trips with the certainty that they have taken place. One of these trips was launched May 19, 1501, exactly 500 years. Portugal sailed on behalf of the Brazilian coast today. Amerigo Vespucci was clearly in his voyages of exploration and after "new world" and India that Columbus had not discovered.

Austria under Emperor Franz-Josef I

Austria under Emperor Franz Joseph I. * 1830 to 1916 (came to power with 18 long reigned until his death 68 years): nationalism Def: If a town in the state of the same language and culture together, is this state of the population was mostly higher . When a nation stands for the autonomy and independence, this is nationalism. In its extreme form, this nationalism a threat to peace, as it reduces other nations. After 1848 were the uprisings in Hungary and Italy have reduced, but CN 1861 in several wars, his property in Italy and for the nation of Italy.

The Battle of Solferino in 1859 has a special meaning: The Geneva businessman Henri Dunant was living in this battle and founded after the misery of the wounded soldiers, who were often in the field, had seen the Red Cross war wounded charity. 1871 Germany is the nation-state (Deut. exclamation Empire) and the Prussian king was elected by the German princes to the emperor. Through these two agreements has or lost much influence and therefore had the emperor of Austria, Franz-Josef of Hungary to meet the demands for national independence: Division of the Habsburg Empire in Austrian and Hungarian halves of the Habsburg.(imperial and royal), together monarchy = compensation, the two sides of the rulers of the state, finance, military and foreign policy. Franz-Josef other nations refused, however, the concessions, which, among other things first led WK. Due to the changes brought by industrialization had to Franz-Josef finally 1867 the demand for high class rich to give a constitution. This was translated by the citizens of their interests, they came together and founded the parts work - the workers' associations,>> Viktor Adler-> SPÖ small peasants, bourgeois, and chr.

Worker-chr>. Soz. Part> Karl Lueger-> ÖVP The right to vote but still hanging on the electoral roll: = taxes paid annually. Only in 1907 in general and equal voting rights (with the exception of women). Women's suffrage in 1918 (= end of the monarchy) the reign of Franz-Josef was culturally and politically very important for Austria: Vienna in the S.

UK Monarchy in the Cultural Center. The ring road was extended to the street (Example: City Hall, Opera House, Parliament, Votive Church, Art and Natural History Museum). Not only has the new re-used, but the old architectural styles.

However, it came as a new style of Art Nouveau, Austria and Vienna was very famous. It is characterized by her earrings, and ornaments. Otto Wagner was an architect of this building style. This style contrasts sharply with that Franz-Josef, who returned to the old styles. Imperialism: Definition: to take the efforts of each of the major powers as areas of great power.

As a result of the colonias of industrialization and capitalism have become increasingly important for the following reasons: 1 to cheaper raw materials to get the second as outlets for excess production as the race began to foreign territories. First came the research and missionaries, who were followed by traders and trading companies, and then the soldiers to conquer the territories. In a short time, Africa was divided among the states and various: GB, F, Dt was rich in Asia: J, RL, E, F In 1910, whites dominated the 85% of the earth's surface.

The interests of other nations, paid little attention. Instead, drove to the customs and email life. This tribal cultures have been destroyed, native crafts, art and tradition. But the worst was that whites moved to the limits of will, which cut tribal boundaries and fields, and built in the plantations of improved land. Against the superior weapons of the natives had no chance. Uprisings were brutally suppressed.

Despite the current independence of former colonial countries still suffer the consequences of imperialism. First Worldwar: Causes: Since 1880 the output balance militarism imperialism nationalism e = way to the International Crisis Worldwar first reason: the assassination of Austrian Archduke von Ö-U by a Serbian terrorist 28.5.1914th At the beginning of the 20 th century. had two major power blocs in E: the Triple Alliance (Central Powers =) - Empire ger, OU, and F Entente, GB, RL v. Since the ultimatum against U-O

Serbia remained unanswered, O-U, said 28.6. 1914 war on Serbia, and wanted to punish a short war. But with the declaration of war conventions entered into force. Only remained neutral at first, but then hit the side of the Entente 1915. When Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare and American merchant ships sank in 1917 joined the U.S. in the war. Now all took great powers of the earth, in part, and many small states. It was fought mainly in E, but also in Africa, Asia and at sea. The war in E became more and more a battle position (100 km long lines in front of barbed wire and fuel) and a battle of material (material only decide). Also first used chemical weapons.

In the winter of 1917, there was no food to buy more freely. Each person was only a rationed amount to a coupon. There were no clothes or money or power. The peace negotiations brought no results. In 1917 came to RL r Revolutin. Communists overthrew the czar and concluded an armistice with the Central Powers.

In January 1918, the U.S. president gave his peace proposal, the 14 points are known. Germany tried to attack again, but I was working with riots and hunger strikes in their own ranks. In October, people some independence Ö-U and founded a new state. On November 3, 1918 reached a truce in Austria and 11 111.

Charles abdicated in 1918. A day after the Republic of Austria was proclaimed. The states lose have imposed harsh peace terms. Had sole responsibility for the war and had to pay all expenses.

Johann Friedrich the Magnanimous

On June 30, 1503 Johann Friedrich was born. The Elector of Saxony sat down at the beginning of the Reformation and Martin Luther was the most important pattern. Therefore, it was nicknamed "the Magnanimous. "

Johann Friedrich was at Torgau, the son of John of Saxony, was born, who bore the nickname of "Firm. " His mother, Sophia of Mecklenburg, died a few days after birth. Even as a teenager was found with the reformer Martin Luther. 1520, even sat down with the Elector Frederick the Wise (his uncle) and the threatened bull with the excommunication of Luther. Johann Friedrich referred to Luther as his father spiritual. "Indeed, the influence of the Reformer went through the entire reign of elector.

After the death of Frederick the Wise, May 5. In 1525 Elector John Strong was the government. At first, he took his son and successor, Johann Friedrich of policy operations, particularly in the context of the Reformation. So this results in frequent negotiations with the emperor and the states in the Protestant side.

On 01/06/1527 he married Johann Friedrich 14 years of age, Sibylle von Jülich-Cleve-Berg. Marriage is defined as very happy, her four children were born, and Johann Ernst II died in 1535, a week after birth.

In 1532 Johann Friedrich the Magnanimous was the successor of his late father as Elector of Saxony. His contemporaries did not report a lot of good things about him. He was considered a violent temper, heavy, great addictive and wasteful. His legendary ability to drink was almost as pronounced as the love of fancy parties. It was so big that only a giant Friesian stallion was able to take without collapsing under the weight of the body.

A voter was mainly concentrated on expanding the national church. Among other things, has given the University of Wittenberg, a new grants policy and created a solid economic base for the students of Lutheran theology. Sometimes, he moved his teaching at the University of Jena. In 1548 he founded there a theological training school, which was collected in 1557 in the state university.

After the death of Martin Luther began the Emperor Charles V in 1546 the War of Schmalkalden. Johann Friedrich 1547, lost the battle of Mühlberg, was wounded and captured, a military court for the Duke of Alba was sentenced to death. In the "surrender of Wittenberg" Johann Friedrich renounced the dignity of elector, Duke Moritz of Saxony past.

Although the emperor lifted the death penalty, but John Frederick remained in captivity. 1552, first acquired by the Treaty of Passau their freedom, when the Protestant side was successful alliance with France against the Emperor.

Johann Friedrich went home and went to Coburg, Altenburg and delays in other areas. Since then allowed to officially call themselves "born elector." On 03/03/1554, died at the age of 50 years - 10 days after his beloved wife Sibylle.

Atahualpa - the last Inca ruler

Atahualpa was 13 and the last Inca ruler. He was born probably around 1502nd When his father died unexpectedly in 1528 in a smallpox broke out between Atahualpa and his half brother, a bitter dispute since the succession was not regulated.

War for the throne

As Atahualpa finally after 5 years was presented as the winner, the Incas were so weakened that the Spanish were able to win with only 180 men, 27 horses and guns and three, the Inca Empire. So their fate was sealed. Pizarro had the king taken prisoner and 4,000 Inca warriors, who were unarmed at the time of peace, massacred.

The lust for gold

Atahualpa quickly realized that he had directed the Spanish in the gold and silver. As for the Inca gold was not valuable, but a precious metal, which promised a ransom to secure the room where he was caught stuffing (6.70 m by 5.20 m) to finish with the gold. I also wanted a cabin filled twice with silver. The gold that Pizarro and his followers were weighed, 13,400 pounds of silver and 26 000 pounds. Atahualpa has not been released. The king's death was a fact, because the conquerors believed to have an easy time with a people without leadership. On August 29, 1533 was sentenced to the stake Atahualpa, but "by grace" strangled.

The Inca

The word "Inca"originally referred only to the supreme ruler, who was the son of the sun and was revered as a god. Later, all the people "Inca"was mentioned. The word comes from the state language of the Incas, Quechua, which is still spoken by over six million inhabitants of the Andes.

The Inca Empire

The Inca state had an area of 500kmÂ ˛. A total of 13 leaders of Manco Capac, Atahualpa. Through bribery and conquests, the Inca rulers of the kingdom increase. It includes most of Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, and parts of Argentina and Chile. This was the Inca Empire at its greatest extent in 1528: an area of approximately 950,000 ˛ KMA (which is about 2Â ˝ times the size of Germany) with approximately twelve million people. The road network of 40,000 km surpassed even that of the Romans.

An entire people is being exterminated

Pizarro and the Spanish soldiers took only 45 years to eliminate an entire people, hundreds of years and in that time there was a thriving civilization. It was estimated that 50 years after the Spanish arrived in Peru, the population of about seven million to 500,000 returns. Those not killed in the Europeans introduced diseases like smallpox and measles came as forced labor to death.

Only a few descendants still live
The living descendants of Inca periods since the destruction of their empire in a miserable existence in the highlands of the Andes. From the old culture is only the language, Quechua obtained remained. They live in some crops and some livestock, usually have no education or vocational training, and often do not speak Spanish, so they are socially excluded.

War for the throne

The lust for gold

The Inca

The Inca Empire

Nicholas of Cusa is 600 - an incredible scholar

Nicholas of Cusa, was born in 1401 when Nicolas cancer (or Cryfftz) in the village of Kues on the Mosel. At that time, Latin was the language of scholars throughout Europe. Therefore these people your name translated into Latin and so often Nicholas of Cusa came to the Cusano name.

His life
At 15 he began philosophy and theology of Nicholas (the doctrine of God) to study. It also addresses the scientific and mathematics. Studied, for example, the rotation of the earth is doing science and deals with medicine, botany and chronology. As a churchman, who is ahead, it is cardinal bishop, and finally the Pope in Rome advisor.

His work
Nicholas of Cusa is famous for his "learned ignorance" ("De Docta ignorantia"). In it, he believes that God can not be seen with the mind. God is so broad that it all there is "bent"is. In creating the world "is developed" it. Since God is infinite, everything combining logic seems contradictory world understandable, as wisdom and ignorance.

The human mind is so hidden God. God can be experienced in a different way: namely, the revelation of God (the infinite) in Jesus Christ (the finite) or any other experience of God, the intellectual basis is intangible. Cusano also believes that God by those who seek to know God can always be found. In short, any person wishing to acknowledge God, they do. That's part of the contradictions that combines to God in one hand, it is not so yet. Cusano calls this "the paradox of God is revealed to man. "

Its effect

With his work, Nicholas is the first integrated way, as was thought in the theology of God in question. At that time there were all know, the rules which state what God is and how to think about it. Using logic as possible was done to understand God. The weather was thought of scholastic call. Cusa presented the academic point of view as to date. With views of the incomprehensible nature of God, Cusano is on the threshold of the Middle Ages to modern times. His writings have influenced many famous thinkers who followed him.

Its effect

Napoleon Bonaparte: Great and autocratic

200 years ago on December 2, 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte, French emperor designate. Previously, the brilliant general and military strategist, was appointed as consul for life. The statesman who dominated like no other kind of global politics in the early 19th century.

Only work with untiring zeal, ambition and an almost pathological political business achieved double Italian born in Corsica, on August 15, 1769 in Ajaccio was born, the place of the son of an aristocrat small lawyers to one of the most successful leaders human history. For his family circumstances were anything but rosy.

Dad's favorite
As the second oldest of twelve children - and also as a darling of popes - Napoleon was generally considered quite stubborn and temperamental to be allowed to visit the privilege of an excellent school in 1779 in mainland France. And even to this date, almost no French, but only controlled Italian mother tongue. Shortly after that the student was amended in 1784 to the military academy in Paris, tragedy struck: his father died of stomach cancer and his family very little money to live.

Head of family
Therefore, the offspring of six years old, was largely his own. He took the position of his father and the family is fed with the low pay of second lieutenant. At least the mother had seven brothers and bring yourself. The official race was allowed to take a lot of young soldier in 1785 by the only road with a special permit - in recognition of his outstanding mathematical achievement.

A stroke of genius
Over the next eight years will be the young man's military career did not really get going. Only when he succeeded in 1793 with a smart strategy to restore the naval base of Toulon by the English, Napoleon's career began to climb. In Paris, overthrew the royalist uprising in Paris, for the Austrians, who soon conquered much of northern Italy and made a haul of several million francs.

Diplomatic marriage
In addition, marriage to the aristocratic widow Sophie de Beauharnais was in 1796 as a brilliant move. The path to the dominant social class, which previously was closed, so free. For Napoleon, whose idol is Julius Caesar wanted to go higher. In 1799 he participated in a coup and was named the first of three consuls. The first time that it ruled for ten years, however, has been appointed in 1802 as consul for life. His megalomania knew no limits: Two years later, on 02 December 1804 was crowned in the church of Notre-Dame Paris himself emperor.

Democracy in spite of the monarchy
Although Napoleon was driven primarily by greed and ambition - for his country, did much: At no time tells the French domestic politics recently - built on an organized force, centralized political system, reform the sectors of educational administration, justice y. Also for more democracy, the monarch became addicted to hard work. It introduced the Civil Code, Civil Code, type the first time establishes the equality of all men before the law and freedom of religion - it is important demands of the French Revolution.

War in Europe
In foreign policy, Napoleon took power, but with time and became increasingly marginalized. His claim of supremacy in Europe and his plans for world politics since 1803, led to ever-new military clashes, which are also called "Napoleonic Wars. " had seven seasons, including against Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia.

France in the final
The consequence of its policy of conquest led to the depletion: By 1812, the resources of France through the many wars have been exhausted. And even when people lose once respected monarch sympathy. In particular, the strict fiscal policy and the establishment of a strict police of Napoleon was a disaster for the people.

The case of an emperor
The last major obstacle is that Napoleon Battle of Leipzig. Despite the strong opposition to the French troops against the majority of the allied enemies of Prussia, Russia, Austria, England, Sweden and Bayern admit defeat. 2 Forced to abdicate in April 1814, the Senate and the Emperor to retire to Elba. But the iron will of the great ruler is not broken. As an emperor called 100-day returns in 1815 in a final dramatic action to the experience of that same year at the Battle of the devastating defeat at Waterloo.

Exiled to St. Helena
Napoleon is on the British island of St. Helena exile in the South Atlantic, where he was the May 5, 1821 died of stomach cancer. Only in 1840 his remains were moved to Paris at the Invalides and buried. There is also the son of Napoleon Franz buried. This was her second marriage to Marie Louise of Austria dating back to the boy never came to the throne. The allies rejected in 1814 after a succession of young monarch. He died at the age of 21 years at the court of his grandfather, Francis I, in Vienna.

More than Napoleon
Want more information about the famous little man (height: 1.69 m) to know? We recommend: Napoleon Online, which is about, especially the war and military history, as well as to provide a page that is most interesting stories about the private person of Napoleon.

Peter the Great - Tsar and reformer

09/06/1672 Peter is born in Moscow and died on 01/28/1725 in St. Petersburg. It was a Tsar of Russia and the Emperor and his life and his work is still seen today in various forms by the Russians.

His name of Peter the Great, which was because he took the first big step toward modernity. European countries opened Western influences. With far-reaching reforms can achieve political success Peter the Great in the first place.

The reforms of Peter the Great
Peter's reforms have transformed Russia. They grew little by little practice, especially military needs. To obtain the necessary funds, the new taxes introduced and implemented the relevant authorities.

The new officers and army officers and modernized need whose skills were Western European standards. Therefore, the diffusion of Western science, methods and practices has been promoted by all means.

The peasants and nobility
The peasants and the nobility had more and more taxes and assume debt that were in deep dependence on the czar. The power of the nobility remained intact since slavery persisted in Russia until 1861. Peasants and nobles, now allowed to establish factories and sell their products freely, while the state remained the main customers.

Open new revenue
Pedro industrialized Siberia, it became increasingly important for trade in Russia, such as Skins. Because herds are becoming less by the permanent threat, which penetrates more rapidly to the east.
Each tenth of a fur coat as a control dam belonged to the state. It also aimed to exploit the natural resources of Siberia continuously.

Finance and Taxation
Peter the Great hoped, by a change in the new tax system to take advantage of sources of money. "So he ordered the nationalization of 1701, the church property. To collect more taxes, the tax collectors could tsarist reach something special. The population had to pay taxes on almost everything: the beard, coffins of oak, salt and a poll tax.

The king also made use of other means, so that the number of state monopolies was always higher than the prices of certain monopolies were the two to four times higher than before. These measures succeeded Peter the increase in income and that was the basis for modern economic life in Russia, where.

The window to Europe
Russia is Europe-oriented than before. The Czar wrote every Western clothes and cut off his beard and demonstratively the skirts of his staff.

Tsar staff moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg to mark a new beginning. Architects were engaged from abroad to modernize the city planning and access to Western standards. The 16th May 1703, the birthday "of the city. In this day of Peter the Great began the construction of the Peter and Paul Fortress on Rabbit Island.

The modernization also affects the timing system and all local governments. The calendar system was in the Julian calendar, second January 1700 and changed the graphic redesign of the cards by the introduction of civil rights call-written in 1708. Peter the Great moved a lot, but could change in the long term, old social structures as expected.

Peter III. - Tsar and Emperor

Czar Peter III. on February 21, 1728 was born the son of a duke and Anna Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great in Kiel. At that time there were in Russia, the Empress Elizabeth I.. Because she was childless herself, was looking for a successor. His election was the son of his sister, Friedrich Karl Ulrich, who renamed in Piotr Fedorovich.Weak spirit in a weak body Peter III. was often ill and remained so their parents until their seventh year at home. Finally, they worried that might soften and underwent military training. At eleven he was in charge of a strict guardian. The result: Peter neurosis, was constantly angry, stubborn and argumentative.

Alcohol trend
1743 Empress Elizabeth, Peter took him to Russia and the Grand Duke. She converted to Orthodox faith and tried to educate as ruler. That proved to be difficult. She was surprised by the rudeness of Peter and schizophrenic mood. Then there was that Peter organized violent drunk. The official excuse was: "Russia is the hot and cold vodka ...".

One of the reasons for the marriage
As Peter's wife, Empress Catherine II had chosen. On August 21, 1745, married in St. Petersburg (who just turned 16, was a year older). Catherine and Peter could not be more different. She was very beautiful, but ugly, had during his years of commitment, Pedro had the smallpox and was disfigured by the unsightly scars.

Catherine was curious, intelligent and mentally active, while Peter was mentally retarded and was more like an adult child. Playing with dolls, puppets and toy soldiers. His addiction to alcohol became stronger, so he got drunk almost every day.

The new czar divided the nation
In December 1761 it was clear that the Empress Elizabeth die. Catherine was now under pressure from all sides to avoid that Peter comes to power. But Catherine did not enter into any conspiracy, so Peter III ascended. on January 5, 1762 the throne. There followed a period when in fact the bold reforms, including partial removal of serfdom led by wanted to take, but on the other hand, wars, gathered all his army against him. Also continued to drink, Katharina most brutal treatment and had a lover.

Catherine became the sole ruler
Over time, the rumors that have been stronger than the divorce of Catherine and Peter make your lover leave his wife. But Catherine had already been taken and held a separate conspiracy with influential men.

Escorted by two regiments of them could be the sole ruler of Russia proclaimed. More military and quickly ran towards it and train together to the Winter Palace. There, the Senate and the church announced on 9 July 1762 formally deposed and the throne of Catherine Peters.

Mysterious Death
Peter initially fled but returned again unable to reach a decision in his pleasure palace. On June 29, 1762 signed his abdication. He was in Ropscha, located 24 kilometers from the prison of St. Petersburg. There was Peter III. 17 July 1762 killed in mysterious circumstances. What role was played by the new Tsarina, was never resolved. 02.20.2003-sw / update: 29.04.09

Thomas More - the inventor of Utopia

Thomas More were of 7.2. 1478 was born the son of a judge in London. Also named Thomas More, how latin catalyzed of his name. That was very modern. 13 years, was the site of the archbishop and studied law at Oxford. At 23 he worked as a lawyer.

From the church to politics
But before 1499, decided to Thomas More first monk. He had opted for the Order of the Carthusians, was his plan, but again after four years. It was now a political career. 1504 became a member of the House of Commons. Explanation: With the House is known in countries with a bicameral parliament, the cabinet, which is described in contrast to the upper house elected by universal suffrage).

The law of God-fearing and good Catholic
Under Henry VIII, made more than a resounding success. In 1510 he was Under Sheriff of London. He traveled as an envoy of his country in the Netherlands, was privy councilor in 1518 and five years later, he was president of the Chamber. In 1529, eventually rose to the Lord Chancellor. Never before has a secular office.

By the way Thomas More was an interesting philosopher, writer, humanist and theological. Friends who was with the way other great thinkers and artists of his time. This includes the great thinkers of Erasmus of Rotterdam. Even the then famous painter Hans Holbein was one of his friends. Which influenced his thinking and act decisively.

Out of favor
Only a few years after most had become Lord Chancellor, who experienced a dramatic decline in his career. Broke with the English king. He had broken with the Pope to divorce can. But he proclaimed himself "Supreme Head of the Church of England. " Thomas More refused him papstreu as it was, as follows. Henry VIII was deeply hurt by the behavior of his former friend and took him for high treason the process. More on 7 July 1535 was sentenced to death and beheaded. The Catholic Church said in 1935 Thomas More sacred.

06.02.2003-sw-image: Biography "Thomas More" Edward Arnold Publishers, page of the book "Utopia"

Todays in History

Pages

Aviation history Part 9 (From the "happy few " for the transport of air mass)

Aviation history Part 8 (The war - the global aviation propeller aircraft and)

Aviation history Part 7 (World War 2 - a new dimension of terror by the aircraft )

Aviation history Part 6 (Rationalization of the aircraft - new technology for air traffic)

Aviation history Part 5 (After the war - air traffic worldwide)

Aviation history Part 4 (World War 1 - the plane will become the new weapon)

Aviation history Part 3 (Since the level of powered flight)

Aviation history Part 2 (The flight dynamics and the principle of "heavier than air")

Aviation history Part 1 (From Myth to Reality)

Jeanne D'Arc

Charlemagne

The death of Genghis Khan 775 years ago

Hannibal - with elephants over the Alps

Emperor Tiberius - a true successor of Augustus?

Caligula - a cruel tyrant in ancient Rome

The Emperor Hadrian

European Union

Lorenzo de 'Medici, Florence and a master in the art.

Sissi and Franz: dream wedding for the 19 Century

Amerigo Vespucci

Austria under Emperor Franz-Josef I

Johann Friedrich the Magnanimous

Atahualpa - the last Inca ruler

Nicholas of Cusa is 600 - an incredible scholar

Napoleon Bonaparte: Great and autocratic

Peter the Great - Tsar and reformer

Peter III. - Tsar and Emperor

Thomas More - the inventor of Utopia

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